![]() Galileo, for whom Torricelli worked, had identified (qualitatively) the orbits of Jovian satellites from observational time series, and similarly characterized sunspots. Evangelista Torricelli manipulated the angles and shapes of tubes filled with mercury standing in a basin of the stuff, showing the height of the mercury in the tubes did not vary Pascal had a manometer of Torricelli's design carried up a mountain, the Puy de Dome, to show that the height of the mercury did vary with altitude. ![]() Both methods shone in the seventeenth century, when they were intertwined then as they are today. ![]() Since the seventeenth century beginnings of modern science, there have been two kinds of procedures, and resulting kinds of data, for discovering causes: manipulating and varying features of systems to see what other features do or do not change and observing the variation of features of systems without manipulation. ![]() Almost all of science is about identifying causal relations and the laws or regularities that govern them. ![]()
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